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1. What were some of the contributions of Ancient Africa to the world? Include in your answer: Origins, Education, Religion, Architecture
Africans contributed much to world history in many fields, including – yet certainly not limited to – education, religion, and architecture. One of the greatest civilizations known to man, the Egyptians left an impact on many education fields such as mathematics and science. The Greek historian Herodotus attributed the invention and mastery of geometry to Egyptian scholars, who were also believed to have had an understanding of the mathematical constant pi (Karenga 98). In the field of science Egyptians also displayed their deep knowledge, diagnosing over 200 diseases according to ancient manuscripts such as the Ebers Papyrus (Karenga 98). Advanced embalmment practices were also pioneered in Egypt. These discoveries led to the preservation of mummies, many of which are still in good condition to this date.
Religious and philosophical concepts also have roots in Egyptian study. Many basic constructs of the Judeo faith are found in ancient Egyptian texts, such as the idea of monotheism (Karenga 99). While Greeks are often credited for the advancement of philosophical thought, its origin can be found in Africa; many great Greek figures in philosophy such as Aristotle studied in Egypt, and later shared their new found enlightenment with their countrymen (Okafor 5).
Many great advancements in the field of architecture were also pioneered by ancient Egyptians. To this day the pyramids of Egypt stand testament to their mastery of this field. The Great Pyramid, located in Giza, contained over 1,3,000,000 stone blocks “which an average weight of two and one-half tons a piece” (Karenga 95). While these marvels of ancient history still perplex scientists and researchers today, they were quite routine work for Egyptians thousands of years ago.
It is no coincidence that so many fields of education and religion originated in Africa. Today it is recognized as a matter of historical and scientific fact that man’s origin can be traced to the continent of Africa. Man’s first ancestor, the Zinjanthrope, lived in Africa 1.7 million years ago; it is from this ancestor that the Homo erectus derived from, and later the Homo sapien (Karenga 86). 10,000 years ago the first signs of culture began to spring up around the Nile river. Today these civilizations are known to have been those of Ethiopia, Nubia, and Egypt. It is no wonder that the Nile river is considered the “cradle” of human civilization (Karenga 87).
2. Describe the Slave Trade and how it operated. How were Africans enslaved? What was enslavement’s connection to Colonial commerce? Discuss the Middle Passage.
The African slave trade was a vast, tragic process that spanned decades and led to the death of millions. It contributed to a systematic destruction of African culture which still effects the continent today. The trading process often began with the capture of Africans off the coast of the continent; this process later moved further in land. While it is true that African leaders participated in this trade early on, a simple surface description would be untruthful. Slavery in Africa has a long history, but it is in no way comparable to that which was practiced by Europeans and Americans; it is said that America redefined the concept of slavery. In Africa slaves were often taken by trades as spoils of war. These individuals would then become servents, yet were never subjected to brutal treatment or humiliation – custom practices of European and American slavery (Karenga 137). Europeans were able to take advantage of this slavery practice by trading guns and other weapons with African tribes in exchange for slaves from other tribes; tribes often fought against each other, and the acquisition of guns would no doubt be an advantage in these campaigns. While the leaders of these tribes were not totally blameless, they certainly had no idea of the future horrors they subjected their kinsmen to by trading them to slave collectors.
Upon acquiring slaves, Europeans would often take them to various “slave castles” located off the coast of the continent. These areas would most often serve as the final time the slaves ever saw their homeland. After this processing slaves were loaded onto ships like cattle, at the bottom of filthy ships with little isolation. The horrible conditions led to the death of many Africans, and also was the beginning point of resistance from slaves. Many Africans escaped the ships by throwing themselves into the ocean, while others attempted to take over the vessel (Okafor 18-22).
The enslavement of Africans benefited colonial commerce greatly. African slaves often had a the ability to farm the most coveted plantation products. This process was originally planned for Native Americans, but because they lacked immunity to many European diseases this became impractical. Africans were immune to the diseases, and because they had no knowledge of their surroundings their escape rate was much lower. The southern economy eventually boomed due to the practice of slavery; it would later collapse fully at the end of the civil war (Karenga 140-141).
The Middle Passage was used to transport slaves, as part of the Atlantic slave trade, from Africa to the Americas. Ships would often leave from Europe and then pick up slaves from the castles set up on the African coast; these slaves were then shipped to America, where they were traded in exchange for American goods. These goods were then shipped to Europe, after which the sad process began again. This quickly became the dominant process of slave trade. The voyage was long and dangerous for Africans; it is estimated that 20% of the Africans taken through the passage never made it to their final destination (Okafor 18-19).
3. What was the rationale for African enslavement? Discuss what slavery was like for the slave, and give examples of resistance
The justification of slavery has deep roots in European racist thought and religion. This form of racism was based on false scientific thought which declared the African no different than chattle – a simple, animalistic breed, unhuman, created to be dominated and taken advantage of. This justification taught that as the superior being, whites had more than every right to enslave those declared to be biologically inferior. Africans were to be used as a means to better the white race, to bolster his riches, and further secure his dominance in the world structure (Karenga 141). Religion also played a role. Slavery “intellectuals” and apologists of the time argued that it was well within the white man’s right to conquer those deemed to be ungodly and heaven; it was as God commanded, they argued.
Slavery was death for most slaves. While some argue that it was “civilized”, reality was much different. Slaves were subjected to horrible conditions and treatment, and brutalized on a daily basis. They were treated worse than cattle on many occasions, if not most. This mistreatment was practiced on various levels, from physical to mental. From a mental level the slaves were stripped of their identity. Any practice that could possible demonstrate their mental abilities – such as the reading or writing – were strictly forbidden. Their purpose was to stimulate and sustain the economy, and slave owners ensured that they never forgot this. On a physical level they were subjected to brutal whippings and horrible working conditions, among other injustices. The women were constantly preyed upon by slave owners. It is ironic that despite taking every measure to declare slaves as inhuman animals, many slave owners had no objection to performing sex acts on them (Karenga 163).
Slave resistance was commonly practiced. During journeys of the middle passage, slaves often jumped from the ship in order to escape – taking their lives in the process. Slave ships also saw more calculated examples of resistance, such as ship mutinies and revolts. Perhaps the most famous example is that of the Amistad, during which the slave Joseph Sinque led a revolt which resulted in the captured slaves taking control of the ship. They demanded to be taken back to their homeland, but were later taken to the coast state of Long Island. There they were quickly arrested and charged. Former president John Quincy Adams later argued their case before the Supreme Court and won their freedom.
4. Define Reconstruction and some of the basic reasons for its failure
Reconstruction was the process of rebuilding the south politically, structurally, and intellectually. Yet while its meaning was indeed just, it was sabotaged by the ever lingering effects of racism. The federal government enacted various laws to help the process of integrating blacks back into society as equals, but state led legislature responded by further segregating them. These Black Codes included various restrictions aimed at stunting the growth of black rights in the south. The government’s response was never stern; in fact they had already decided to “essentially reintegrate [blacks] into the southern economy under semi-enslaved conditions as sharecroppers” (Karenga 163). After slavery blacks had noting; they owned no land or property. Yet they were expected to re-enter society on their own. The playing field was unfair, unjust, and unplayable.
White terror groups such as the Klu Klux Klan emerged in response to the federal government’s attempts to give blacks their rights. These groups were able to prevent blacks from doing this through intimidation and violence. When northen troops were withdrawn from the south in 1877, these terrorists groups were essentially given free reign to terrorize the black population (Karenga 165).
